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Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are among the most common infectious diseases encountered in urological practice. According to EAU terminology, UTIs are classified as lower urinary tract infections (lUTIs) or upper urinary tract infections (uUTIs). Lower urinary tract infections primarily involve the bladder and urethra, with cystitis being the most frequent clinical entity. Typical symptoms of lUTIs include dysuria, urinary frequency, urgency, and suprapubic pain. Upper urinary tract infections affect the kidneys and renal pelvis and are most commonly referred to as acute pyelonephritis. Upper UTIs are usually associated with systemic symptoms such as fever, flank pain, chills, and malaise. UTIs are further categorized as uncomplicated or complicated based on patient-related and anatomical factors. Uncomplicated UTIs occur in healthy, non-pregnant individuals with a structurally and functionally normal urinary tract. Complicated UTIs are associated with factors such as urinary tract obstruction, indwelling catheters, renal impairment, or immunosuppression. Escherichia coli remains the most common causative pathogen in both uncomplicated lUTIs and uUTIs. Diagnosis of UTIs is based on clinical presentation supported by urinalysis and urine culture. Imaging of the urinary tract is not routinely required in uncomplicated lUTIs. In suspected uUTIs or complicated infections, imaging is recommended to exclude obstruction or other complications. Antimicrobial therapy should be guided by local resistance patterns and culture results whenever possible. EAU guidelines emphasize antimicrobial stewardship to reduce the development of antibiotic resistance. Asymptomatic bacteriuria should not be treated except in specific clinical situations, such as pregnancy or prior to urological procedures. Recurrent UTIs require careful evaluation to identify modifiable risk factors. Prevention strategies include behavioral measures and, in selected cases, prophylactic antimicrobial or non-antimicrobial approaches. Prompt recognition and appropriate management of uUTIs are essential to prevent sepsis and renal damage. Adherence to EAU guidelines ensures standardized, evidence-based management of upper and lower urinary tract infections. Infections of the male reproductive system represent a significant cause of morbidity in urological practice. These infections may involve the prostate, epididymis, testes, seminal vesicles, or urethra. Acute and chronic prostatitis are among the most common inflammatory conditions affecting the male reproductive organs. Epididymitis and orchitis frequently present with scrotal pain, swelling, and systemic symptoms of infection. Sexually transmitted pathogens play an important role in infections of the male reproductive system, particularly in younger patients. Ascending infection from the lower urinary tract is a common pathogenic mechanism. Laboratory evaluation includes urinalysis, microbiological cultures, and inflammatory markers. Imaging modalities such as ultrasonography are useful in assessing complications, including abscess formation. Early diagnosis and appropriate antimicrobial therapy are essential to prevent long-term sequelae. Untreated or recurrent infections may result in infertility, chronic pain, or structural damage to the reproductive organs.

Injuries of the urinary tract and male genitalia represent important urological emergencies and are often associated with trauma. These injuries may result from blunt, penetrating, or iatrogenic mechanisms. The urinary tract includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, all of which may be affected by trauma. Renal injuries are the most common type of urinary tract trauma. Hematuria is a key clinical sign suggesting injury to the urinary tract. The severity of renal trauma is classified using the American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) grading system. Most low-grade renal injuries can be managed conservatively. Ureteral injuries are relatively rare but are often iatrogenic in origin. Delayed diagnosis of ureteral injury may lead to significant morbidity. Bladder injuries are frequently associated with pelvic fractures. Bladder trauma is classified as intraperitoneal or extraperitoneal. Retrograde cystography is the diagnostic gold standard for suspected bladder injury. Urethral injuries commonly occur in association with pelvic trauma or straddle injuries. Blood at the urethral meatus is a classic sign of urethral injury. Retrograde urethrography should be performed before urethral catheterization when injury is suspected. Injuries of the male genitalia include trauma to the penis, scrotum, testes, and epididymis. Penile fracture is caused by rupture of the tunica albuginea of the corpus cavernosum. Immediate surgical repair is recommended in cases of penile fracture. Testicular trauma may result in contusion, rupture, or dislocation. Scrotal ultrasonography with Doppler is the imaging modality of choice for testicular injuries. Testicular rupture requires urgent surgical exploration. Genital injuries may be associated with significant psychological impact. Early recognition and prompt management are essential to preserve organ function. Associated injuries to other organ systems are common and must be assessed. Initial evaluation follows standard trauma protocols, including stabilization of the patient. Imaging plays a crucial role in the assessment of urological trauma. Conservative management is preferred when clinically appropriate. Surgical intervention is indicated in hemodynamically unstable patients or high-grade injuries. Long-term complications may include strictures, infertility, erectile dysfunction, and chronic pain. A multidisciplinary approach is often required for optimal management of urinary tract and genital injuries.

Urinary incontinence is a prevalent condition characterized by the involuntary loss of urine, with significant implications for physical health and psychosocial well-being. The etiology of urinary incontinence is multifactorial, involving dysfunction of the lower urinary tract, pelvic floor muscles, and neural control mechanisms. Common subtypes include stress, urge, mixed, and overflow incontinence, each with distinct pathophysiological mechanisms. The prevalence of urinary incontinence increases with age and is higher among women, particularly following pregnancy, childbirth, and menopause. In men, urinary incontinence is frequently associated with prostate disease or as a complication of prostate surgery. Urinary incontinence is associated with reduced quality of life, increased risk of depression, and social isolation. Diagnosis relies on a comprehensive clinical assessment, including patient history, physical examination, and, when indicated, urodynamic testing. Conservative management strategies, such as pelvic floor muscle training and bladder retraining, are considered first-line therapies. Pharmacological and surgical interventions may be indicated for patients with moderate to severe symptoms or refractory disease. Ongoing research focuses on improving diagnostic accuracy and developing minimally invasive treatment modalities to optimize patient outcomes. Neurogenic bladder dysfunction is a loss of bladder control caused by damage to the brain, spinal cord, or nerves, resulting in either an overactive (spastic) or underactive (flaccid) bladder. Common causes include stroke, spinal cord injury, MS, Parkinson’s, and diabetes. Symptoms range from incontinence and frequency to urine retention. Types of Neurogenic Bladder Overactive (Spastic/Hyperreflexic): The bladder muscle contracts automatically, causing frequency, urgency, and urge incontinence. Underactive (Flaccid/Hypotonic): The bladder muscle does not contract, leading to urinary retention, overflow incontinence (dribbling), and inability to empty fully. Mixed: Features of both overactive and underactive. Detrusor-Sphincter Dyssynergia: The bladder contracts while the sphincter muscle remains closed, preventing emptying.

Anatomical dissection of the lower limb contains educational video recordings of dissections performed on cadavers in dissection rooms of Department of Anatomy. They are intended for students of medicine in order to acquaint them with anatomical structures of the human body as well as to extend their preparation for practical exercises. Documentation videos are supplemented with descriptions of individual anatomical structures and expert commentary.

This work was supported by the national grant KEGA 017UPJŠ-4/2016 "Visualization of education in human anatomy using video records of dissections and multimedia teaching materials".

This contribution offers lecture notes with complementary illustrative pictures for students of general medicine. These lectures should be used as supplementary education material in the study subject Anatomy. The lectures include topics related to the anatomy of upper extremity and anatomy of lower extremity from orthopaedic view.

This contribution presents a set of educational videos designed for the study of bones, joints, muscles, vessels and nerves of the lower limb for the subject Anatomy 1. The videos contain records of individual anatomical structures and provide the possibility of individual preparation for practical exercises. They are intended for students of general medicine.

The lecture provides information on the basic aspects of urological examination. It discusses the history of urological diseases, examinations and symptomatology, which are important in the examination of a urological patient. It deals with urinary disorders, changes in urine quality, urological causes of hematuria, endoscopic examination methods, USG and CT with a presentation of some typical findings.

Urology is the branch of medicine that focuses on surgical and medical diseases of the male and female urinary-tract system and the male reproductive organs. Organs under the domain of urology include the kidneys, adrenal glands, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra, and the male reproductive organs (testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis).

We are going to talk about acute psychotic states, acute intoxications, withdrawal syndromes, acute mania, depression with suicidal thoughts, qualitative disorders of conscioussness, acute anxiety, affective reactions in personality disorders, acute adverse side effects caused by medication: serotonin syndrome, neuroleptic malignant sy, acute dystonia, akathizia.